Nickel · Ni

1. 1🇮🇩Indonesia
   44.3%62,000,000 metric tons
2. 2🇦🇺Australia
   17.9%25,000,000 metric tons
3. 3🇧🇷Brazil
   11.4%16,000,000 metric tons
4. 4🇷🇺Russia
   5.9%8,300,000 metric tons
5. 5🇳🇨New Caledonia
   5.1%7,100,000 metric tons
6. 6🇵🇭Philippines
   3.4%4,800,000 metric tons
7. 7🇨🇳China
   3.1%4,400,000 metric tons
8. 8🇨🇦Canada
   1.6%2,200,000 metric tons
9. 9🇺🇸United States
   0.2%340,000 metric tons

9 countries shown · USGS-defined economic reserves

3,102 distinct deposits across the roster

USGS National Geochemical Database · sorted by detection · detected-sample concentration

• 🇮🇩IndonesiaRefining
  1,493.2 kt2024
• 🇨🇳ChinaRefining
  1,091.1 kt2024
• 🇷🇺RussiaRefining
  126 kt2024
• 🇨🇦CanadaRefining
  113.1 kt2024
• 🇦🇺AustraliaRefining
  80 kt2024
• 🇫🇮FinlandRefining
  62 kt2024

• Mine production (laterite ore)

  HHI 0.52Highly concentrated
  Top Indonesia 70%2023

  Indonesia 70% · Philippines 14% · New Caledonia 8% · Cuba 1% · Colombia 1% · Madagascar 1%

  USGS Minerals Yearbook OFR 2025-1047

• Refiningkt

  HHI 0.27Concentrated
  Top Indonesia 42%2024

  Indonesia 42% · China 30% · Russia 4% · Canada 3% · Australia 2% · Finland 2%

  IEA Critical Minerals Dataset (CMO 2025)

• US import partners

  HHI 0.22Moderate
  Top Canada 44% · 70% attributed2024

  Canada 44% · Norway 11% · Australia 8% · Brazil 7% · Other 30%

  USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026

Net import reliance: 41% (2025)

55 events from the USGS commodity-chapter narratives and curated primary sources - the policy, trade, and company intelligence the data tables do not carry.

Current signals (MCS 2026)

• PolicyNikolai and NorthMet projects2025

  designated as Federal Transparency Projects under the Fixing America’s Surface Transport Act and added to the permitting dashboard (2 projects)

• PolicyExecutive Order 14285April 2025

  called for the development of seabed mineral deposits to help secure supplies of critical minerals such as nickel (not specified)

• PolicyProvince of Palawan2025

  announced a 50-year ban on new mining permits that did not affect existing operations (50-year ban)

• Companymultiple companies2025

  placed mines into care-and-maintenance status (production decreased by an estimated 54%)

• Capacityan unnamed company2025

  built a pilot-scale nickel refining facility in Oklahoma (pilot-scale facility)

• ProjectTamarack nickel-copper-cobalt project2025

  continued to progress a feasibility study (not specified)

• Projectthree companies2025

  were considering or developing nickel refinery projects in Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas (3 refinery projects)

• Projectseveral companies2025

  submitted applications to explore regions prospective for nickel-bearing ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic nodules (several applications; quantity not specified)

• Productionglobal nickel mines2025

  mine production increased (5% to an estimated 3.9 million tons)

• Productionnew operations2025

  production increased as new operations continued to ramp up production (13%)

• Productionan unnamed company2025

  production increased after a company completed a mine expansion (not specified)

• Productionnickel mines2025

  production increased (not specified)

• Productionmultiple mines2025

  reported production cuts (production declined by an estimated 24%)

• PriceLondon Metal Exchange (LME)2025

  annual average nickel cash price decreased compared with 2024 (11%; estimated $15,000 per metric ton ($6.90 per pound))

• OtherInternational Nickel Study Group2022-2025

  reported continued surplus in the global primary nickel market balance (98,500 tons in 2022; 170,000 tons in 2023; 182,000 tons in 2024; 189,000 tons in first 9 months of 2025 versus 107,000 tons in same period of 2024)

Curated events (each row links its primary source)

• PolicyGovernment of Indonesia2020-01iea.org

  Indonesia banned exports of unprocessed nickel ore (fully effective January 2020), forcing global manufacturers to build smelters inside Indonesia. This blunt downstreaming policy turned the country from a raw-ore exporter into the dominant nickel-processing hub (now >50% of world nickel) within a few years. (full nickel-ore export ban from Jan 2020; Indonesia now >50% of world mined + processed nickel)

• ProductionTsingshan / CATL / Huayou (IMIP, IWIP)2023-2024pubs.usgs.gov

  Chinese-invested RKEF (nickel pig iron/ferronickel) and HPAL (battery-grade class-1) capacity flooded into Sulawesi, making Indonesia the source of more than half of world nickel and breaking the old assumption that Indonesian nickel was class-2 only - it now also supplies battery-grade class-1 via HPAL. (Indonesia ~59% of world nickel mine production (USGS: 2,200 of 3,700 kt, 2024e); Tsingshan alone ~1/3 of world stainless)

• PriceLondon Metal Exchange (LME) / Tsingshan2022-03financialresearch.gov

  On 8 March 2022 the LME nickel price spiked above US$100,000/t (from ~US$28,000 days earlier) as a Tsingshan short squeeze threatened clearing-member defaults; the LME suspended nickel trading and cancelled ~US$12 billion of trades - exposing the fragility of nickel price discovery amid Indonesian/Chinese supply concentration. (>US$100,000/t peak (8 Mar 2022); ~US$12bn trades cancelled; Tsingshan ~US$8bn paper loss)

Company-operations record (Minerals Yearbook - historical, published 3-4 yrs after the data year)

• Export controlGovernment of Indonesia2021MYB 2021

  implemented ban on export of unprocessed ore

• PolicyU.S. Geological Survey2021MYB 2021

  released an updated draft list of critical minerals that included nickel

• CompanyBefesa S.A.; American Zinc Recycling; INMETCO2021MYB 2021

  acquired American Zinc Recycling, owner of INMETCO

• CompanyCarpenter Technology Corp.; Reading facilityDecember 2021MYB 2021

  announced forging press outage (outage expected to last up to 60 days)

• CompanyTesla, Inc.October 2021MYB 2021

  announced switch of batteries in all standard range vehicles to LFP chemistries

• CompanyIGO Ltd.; Western Areas Ltd.; Forrestania operation and Cosmos nickel operationDecember 2021MYB 2021

  announced acquisition of Western Areas in all-cash deal

• CompanyQueensland Pacific Metals Ltd.; LG Energy Solution Ltd.; POSCO International; TECH projectJune 2021MYB 2021

  received equity investments and signed offtake agreements for nickel and cobalt (LGES to purchase 7,000 t/yr nickel and 700 t/yr cobalt; POSCO to purchase 3,000 t/yr nickel and 300 t/yr cobalt for 7 years)

• CapacityAMG Vanadium; Zanesville plant2021MYB 2021

  developed new catalyst recycling and ferroalloy production plant (would effectively double the company’s catalyst recycling and ferroalloy production capacity)

• CapacityBHP Nickel West Pty Ltd.; Kwinana nickel refinery2021MYB 2021

  commissioned refinery with first production taking place in December (planned full capacity of 100,000 t/yr of nickel sulfate)

• CapacityTerrafame Ltd.; battery chemicals plantJune 2021MYB 2021

  began ramping up production of new battery chemicals plant (production capacity of 170,000 t/yr nickel sulfate)

• ProjectPolyMet Mining Corp.; NorthMet project2021MYB 2021

  continued to advance copper, nickel, and platinum-group-metal project; two permits remained challenged in court

• ProjectTalon Metals Corp.; Tamarack nickel project2021MYB 2021

  continued development and announced updated preliminary economic assessment (updated indicated resource estimate of 75,000 t recoverable nickel; inferred resources 79,500 t recoverable nickel)

• ProjectMissouri Cobalt LLC; hydrometallurgical facility2021MYB 2021

  continued to progress new hydrometallurgical facility for battery-grade nickel and cobalt and announced final stages of construction

• ProjectAMG Vanadium; Zanesville spent petroleum catalyst recycling plant2021MYB 2021

  continued development and began first phase of hiring (new plant would effectively double catalyst recycling and ferroalloy production capacity)

• ProjectChalice Mining Ltd.; Julimar nickel-copper-PGM projectNovember 2021MYB 2021

  released pit-constrained maiden mineral resource estimate (indicated resources 150 Mt at 0.17% nickel with 250,000 t nickel content; inferred resources 180 Mt at 0.16% nickel with 280,000 t nickel content)

• ProjectMincor Resources NL; Cassini and Northern Operations nickel projects2021MYB 2021

  continued development; extracted first ore at Northern Operations

• ProjectQueensland Pacific Metals Ltd.; Townsville Energy Chemicals Hub (TECH)2021MYB 2021

  continued development of battery materials refinery

• ProjectCentaurus Metals Ltd.; Jaguar nickel project2021MYB 2021

  continued development and announced scoping study results (approximately 20,000 t/yr nickel in sulfate and 9,600 t/yr mixed sulfide precipitate during initial 13 years)

• ProjectCentaurus Metals Ltd.; Jaguar nickel projectDecember 2021MYB 2021

  updated combined indicated and inferred mineral resource estimate and began definitive feasibility study (80.6 Mt at 0.91% nickel with estimated 731,000 t nickel content)

• ProjectVale Canada Ltd.; Voisey’s Bay underground extension project, Reid Brook Mine and Eastern Deep Mine2021MYB 2021

  began production at Reid Brook Mine and continued development at Eastern Deep Mine (would increase nickel production at Voisey’s Bay to about 45,000 t/yr; Eastern Deep Mine about 67% complete at yearend)

• ProjectGEM Co., Ltd.; Jingmen nickel sulfate facilityJune 2021MYB 2021

  announced it would build nickel sulfate facility (capacity up to 33,000 t/yr nickel sulfate; construction expected to take approximately 9 months)

• ProjectChengtun Mining Group Co., Ltd.; Fuquan battery-grade materials plantSeptember 2021MYB 2021

  announced plans to build production plant for battery-grade materials (capacity to produce 300,000 t/yr of battery-grade nickel sulfate; completed in two phases over 3 years)

• ProjectChengtun Mining Group; PT ChengMach Nickel Indonesia; Weda Bay nickel matte facility2021MYB 2021

  announced joint venture to develop nickel matte facility (capacity to produce 40,000 t/yr nickel content in matte)

• ProjectCNGR Advanced Material Co., Ltd.; Rigqueza International Pte. Ltd.; Morowali nickel matte facilityApril 2021MYB 2021

  announced joint venture to construct nickel matte facility (up to 30,000 t/yr nickel content in matte)

• ProductionLundin Mining Corp.; Eagle Mine and Humboldt mill2021MYB 2021

  produced nickel in concentrate (18,400 t of nickel in concentrate, compared with 16,700 t in 2020; increase of 10%)

• ProductionPanoramic Resources Ltd.; Savannah nickel-copper-cobalt mineJuly 2021MYB 2021

  restarted production at the Savannah mine (estimated proven and probable reserves were 8.27 Mt at 1.23% nickel with an estimated 102,000 t nickel content)

• ProductionMincor Resources NL; Northern OperationsDecember 2021MYB 2021

  extracted first ore

• ProductionAtlantic Nickel Mineração Ltda.; Santa Rita nickel sulfide mine2021MYB 2021

  produced nickel concentrate after reopening in 2020 (14,500 t of nickel concentrate)

• ProductionVale Canada Ltd.; Sudbury operations2021MYB 2021

  finished nickel production decreased (decreased by 26%)

• ProductionBoliden AB; Harjavalta smelter nickel line2021MYB 2021

  nickel matte production decreased and nickel line remained on hold after explosion (nickel matte production decreased by 24% to 19,000 t in 2021 from 25,000 t in 2020)

• ProductionBoliden AB; Harjavalta smelter nickel lineDecember 24, 2021MYB 2021

  production remained on hold after explosion

• ProductionLygend Resources & Technology Co., Ltd.; North Maluku Obi MHP facilityMay 2021MYB 2021

  announced first production of mixed hydroxide product (first phase capacity up to 37,000 t/yr MHP)

• ProductionTsingshan Holding Group Co., Ltd.; Sulawesi nickel matte facilityDecember 2021MYB 2021

  began production at facility (production capacity 100,000 t/yr nickel matte with greater than 75% nickel content)

• ProductionAmbatovy Minerals S.A.; Ambatovy nickel mine and plantMarch 2021MYB 2021

  restarted operations after shutdown (plant produced 29,285 t nickel in metal briquettes, compared with 9,874 t in 2020 and 33,733 t in 2019)

• ProductionPJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel; Norilsk concentrator and Oktyabrsky and Taimyrsky Mines2021MYB 2021

  production decreased owing to accident and flooding (mine production decreased by 12% to 204,814 t; primary production decreased by 15% to 145,817 t)

• ProductionAfrican Rainbow Minerals Ltd.; Nkomati MineMarch 2021MYB 2021

  placed mine on care-and-maintenance status in preparation for closure (nickel production during first 9 months of ARM’s 2021 fiscal year totaled 8,016 t, compared with 10,638 t in fiscal year 2020)

• ProductionThakadu Group; Marikana nickel sulfate facilityEarly 2021MYB 2021

  began production of high-purity nickel sulfate for battery market (planned to produce 16,000 t in 2021 with rampup to 25,000 t/yr)

• Nikolai Nickel ProjectTransparency · AK · Department of the Army
  In ProgressIn Progress
• NorthMet ProjectTransparency · MN · Department of the Army
  In ProgressIn Progress

US-mining permitting benchmark (cross-commodity): median 1.87 yr from Notice of Intent to Record of Decision over 7 completed cycles (range 1 to 9.99 yr).

FAST-41 covers only large projects with a federal nexus, so it is not a representative sample of US permitting timelines.

Lead-times are driven by project size, litigation, and tribal/environmental consultation - and by the permitting-regime policy of the day - far more than by the commodity.

The benchmark is a small-n median over projects that finished a cycle; recent fast cycles reflect an expedited-permitting push and may not persist.

Source: U.S. Federal Permitting Dashboard (FAST-41). US federal government work (public domain).

• ACC - Automotive Cells Company ACC Nersac Pilot Line / Industrial Excellence CenterAutomotive Cells Company (ACC) · France · battery_cell

  2 GWh/yr nameplate · ~1,020 t/yr contained

  source: [1] [2] [3][capacity source]
  lithium-ion EV battery cells, prototype EV batteriesoperatingofficial
• ACCUREC-Recycling GmbH Krefeld Lithium Battery Recycling / Lithium Recovery PlantACCUREC-Recycling GmbH · Germany · recycling, chemical_processing

  4000 t/yr planned

  source: [1] [2] [3][capacity source]
  operatingofficial
• AMG Vanadium - Cambridge, OhioAMG Vanadium LLC · United States · recycling, smelter

  source: [1]
  ferrovanadium (FeV) + ferronickel-molybdenum (FeNiMo) from spent-catalyst recyclingoperatingofficial
• AMG Vanadium - Zanesville, OhioAMG Vanadium LLC · United States · recycling, smelter

  2722 t/yr contained V nameplate

  source: [1][capacity source]
  vanadium (contained, produced as ferrovanadium/FeNiMo) from spent-catalyst recycling; also ~35,000 t/yr spent-catalyst feedstock throughputoperatingofficial
• ASPA - Advanced Sludge Processing by Aurubis (hydrometallurgical plant, Beerse)Aurubis AG (Germany) · Belgium · chemical_processing, refinery

  33 EUR million (capex) operating

  source: [1][capacity source]
  tin and precious metals recovered from anode sludge (capacity figure not disclosed; recorded as capex)operatingofficial
• Althofen Recycling Plant 2 (RC2) - spent-catalyst recycling (V/Ni/Mo recovery)Treibacher Industrie AG · Austria · recycling, chemical_processing

  20000 t/yr contained metals nameplate

  source: [1][capacity source]
  recovered metals (nickel + vanadium + molybdenum, combined)operatingofficial
• Althofen ferroalloy plant (Treibach works) - ferrovanadium / ferromolybdenum / FeNiMo lineTreibacher Industrie AG · Austria · smelter

  source: [1]
  ferrovanadium (FeV)operatingofficial
• Ambatovy Minerals S.A. Ambatovy Pressure Acid Leach PlantDynatec Madagascar S.A. (DMSA) · Madagascar · chemical_processing, refinery

  40000 t/yr nameplate · ~39,600 t/yr contained

  source: [1] [2][capacity source]
  operatingofficial
• American Battery Technology Company Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling FacilityAmerican Battery Technology Company · United States · recycling, chemical_processing

  20000 t/yr nameplate

  source: [1] [2] [3][capacity source]
  operatingofficial
• Angel Nickel RKEFNickel Industries Limited · Indonesia · smelter

  source: [1]
  nickel pig iron (NPI), exportedoperatingofficial
• Anglo American Platinum Ltd. Rustenburg Base Metals RefinersValterra Platinum Limited · South Africa · refinery, chemical_processing

  33000 t/yr nameplate · ~33,000 t/yr contained

  source: [1] [2] [3][capacity source]
  operatingofficial
• Anglo American Platinum smelting and refining operations (Rustenburg/Waterval and Polokwane smelters, Precious Metals Refinery, Rustenburg Base Metals Refinery)Anglo American plc · South Africa · smelter, refinery

  source: [1]
  refined PGMs (platinum, palladium, rhodium, other PGMs + gold) and nickeloperatingofficial
• Anglo Converter Plant / Anglo (Amplats) Converter Process (ACP), Rustenburg (Waterval site)Valterra Platinum Limited · South Africa · smelter

  0.25 Mtpa nameplate

  source: [1][capacity source]
  furnace matte converted (throughput); also produces sulphuric acid from SO2 abatementoperatingofficial
• Arnold Magnetic Technologies Alnico Magnets and Assemblies / Precision Thin Metals DivisionArnold Magnetic Technologies Corporation · United States · other

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  Alnico magnets, custom Alnico magnetic assembliesoperatingofficial
• Ascend Elements Base 1Ascend Elements · United States · recycling, chemical_processing

  30000 t/yr operating

  source: [1] [2] [3][capacity source]
  operatingofficial
• Ascend Elements Novi CAM finishing / cathode sintering siteAscend Elements · United States · chemical_processing, cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  cathode active material (CAM), NMC cathode materialoperatingofficial
• Ascend Elements R&D Center / pilot pCAM facilityAscend Elements, Inc. · United States · chemical_processing, cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  NMC precursor cathode active material (pCAM)operatingofficial
• Aurubis Beerse (secondary raw material recycling throughput)Aurubis AG (Germany) · Belgium · smelter, refinery

  350000 t/yr operating

  source: [1][capacity source]
  secondary raw materials recycled (feed throughput; <1% from hardhead)operatingofficial
• Aurubis Beerse (secondary tin / multimetal recycling smelter)Aurubis AG (Germany) · Belgium · smelter, refinery, chemical_processing

  10000 t/yr operating

  source: [1][capacity source]
  refined tin (M-brand / MC ingots, LME-registered)operatingofficial
• Aurubis Lunen (sister secondary copper smelter / multimetal recycling site)Aurubis AG (Germany) · Germany · smelter, refinery

  210000 t/yr operating

  source: [1][capacity source]
  copper cathodes (refined)operatingofficial
• Automotive Cells Company ACC Billy-Berclau Douvrin gigafactoryACC - Automotive Cells Company · France · battery_cell

  40 GWh/yr planned · ~20,400 t/yr contained

  source: [1] [2] [3][capacity source]
  lithium-ion battery cells, battery modulesoperatingofficial
• BASF Battery Materials Schwarzheide Black Mass PlantBASF Schwarzheide GmbH · Germany · recycling

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  operatingofficial
• BASF Battle Creek cathode active materialBASF Toda America LLC · United States · cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  cathode active materials for lithium-ion batteries, NCM cathode materialsoperatingofficial
• BASF Battle Creek cathode active materials siteBASF · United States · cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  Cathode active materials (CAM) for lithium-ion batteries, including NCM, NCA, and LCO productsoperatingofficial
• BASF Schwarzheide GmbH Cathode active materials production plant, BASF Schwarzheide siteBASF Battery Materials and Recycling Schwarzheide GmbH · Germany · cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  High-performance cathode active materials (CAM) for lithium-ion batteries / electric vehiclesoperatingofficial
• BASF Schwarzheide cathode active materialBASF Schwarzheide GmbH · Germany · cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  Cathode active materials (CAM) for lithium-ion batteries, NCM cathode active materialsoperatingofficial
• BASF Shanshan Battery Materials Co., Ltd. Changsha BaseBASF Shanshan Battery Materials Co., Ltd. · China · chemical_processing, cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  cathode active materials (CAM), precursor cathode active materials (PCAM)operatingofficial
• BASF TODA Battery Materials LLC Kitakyushu Site / Kitakyushu PlantBASF TODA Battery Materials LLC · Japan · cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2] [3]
  NCA cathode active material, NCM cathode active materialoperatingofficial
• BASF TODA Battery Materials LLC Onoda Site / Onoda PlantBASF TODA Battery Materials LLC · Japan · chemical_processing, cathode_anode

  60000 t/yr planned · ~29,322 t/yr contained

  source: [1] [2][capacity source]
  NCA cathode material, NCM cathode materialoperatingofficial
• BASF Toda America LLC BASF Toda America cathode active materials facilityBASF Toda America LLC · United States · cathode_anode

  source: [1] [2]
  NCM cathode active materials, NCA cathode active materialsoperatingofficial

Showing 30 of 599 (verified / operating first).

Provenance. Facilities were sourced by more than one method - 312 classified from the operator's OFFICIAL website by an LLM (gpt-5.5), web search hard-locked to the company domain, then adversarially web-verified; 287 captured from the operator's published ANNUAL REPORT or regulatory filing (a cited primary source). 596 of 599 carry an explicit source URL and capacity figures cite their own official page. As of 2026-06-19. Citations are verified and link-maintained: a 56-facility content audit found 100% on the company's official domain and 89% backed by the live page text, and a full-seed link sweep refreshed rotted URLs against the official site (pages with no current official source are left uncited). Some official pages are JavaScript-rendered or bot-protected.

Capacity is captured where the official site states it (partial, not every facility), across both upstream refining/chemical plants and component cathode/anode/cell/magnet plants.

Contained-mineral tonnes/yr is derived from each plant's published PRODUCT capacity via explicit content coefficients (kg contained metal per kg product), so figures are comparable across plants that report different product forms. The coefficients: refined copper ~1.0 (cathode 0.999, anode/blister 0.98); nickel sulphate 0.22, class-1/MHP and Ni-content ferronickel ~1.0, but GROSS class-2 alloy converts to contained Ni (nickel pig iron 0.11, ferronickel 0.23) so Indonesian RKEF capacity counts its true Ni content, not gross alloy tonnage; lithium carbonate 0.188, hydroxide 0.165, LCE 0.188, spodumene SC6 0.028; rare-earth oxide (REO) 0.80 (metal 0.90, carbonate 0.55); NdFeB magnet -> neodymium 0.22 of magnet mass; natural graphite concentrate 0.92, artificial/anode graphite 0.95; battery cells from GWh x strata cell-chemistry intensities (demand-side). These are engineering-grade coefficients (industry purity/stoichiometry ranges), not plant-specific assays. Only operating + nameplate capacity is summed (planned excluded); the figure is normalised by REGIME (upstream refining vs component cathode/anode/cell/magnet) and never summed across regimes, since a cathode and the cell it feeds count the same physical metal.

Coverage is a partial census (curated + sourced from public disclosures), not exhaustive; the long tail of smaller plants is incomplete.

Captured upstream capacity is deduplicated to distinct PHYSICAL PLANTS - the same plant recorded under variant names or different owners (e.g. across an annual report and the web-classified census) is counted once. It is nameplate+operating CAPACITY, not production, so it can exceed annual output (refining capacity is typically run below nameplate).

LLM-classified rows are read from the company's OFFICIAL website (web search domain-locked) and adversarially verified; 'official' marks a row from the company's own site, 'web' from broader search.

Rows not classified by an LLM are drawn from company annual reports / regulatory filings, each cited to that primary source per row (not LLM-classified).

Source: strata midstream-components topology (company official sites, LLM-classified + company annual reports & filings).

One panel per reported form family and basis - a tonne of metal appears at every chain stage (mine -> smelter -> refined), so stages are never summed with each other, and gross mineral tonnes never rank against contained metal.

These are the newest measurements the Yale STAFDB corpus carries (2000) - a historical flow structure, not current-year tonnage.

• environment → environment30,818.364 Gg
• fabrication → fabrication10,378.735 Gg
• fabrication → fabrication and manufacturing10,191.121 Gg